<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">firesmi</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Пожаровзрывобезопасность/Fire and Explosion Safety</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Pozharovzryvobezopasnost/Fire and Explosion Safety</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">0869-7493</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2587-6201</issn><publisher><publisher-name>ФГБОУ ВО «Национальный исследовательский Московский государственный строительный университет»</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.22227/0869-7493.2023.32.04.31-41</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">firesmi-1248</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>БЕЗОПАСНОСТЬ ЗДАНИЙ, СООРУЖЕНИЙ, ОБЪЕКТОВ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>SAFETY OF BUILDINGS, STRUCTURES, OBJECTS</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Особенности поведения резервуаров со сжиженным природным газом (СПГ) в очаге пожара</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>Behavior of liquefied natural gas tanks in a point of fire origin</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1916-2547</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Шебеко</surname><given-names>Ю. Н.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Shebeko</surname><given-names>Yu. N.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>ШЕБЕКО Юрий Николаевич, д-р техн. наук, профессор, главный научный сотрудник</p><p>143903, Московская обл., г. Балашиха, мкр. ВНИИПО, 12</p><p>РИНЦ ID: 47042; Scopus AuthorID: 7006511704</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Yury N. SHEBEKO, Dr. Sci. (Eng.), Professor, Chief Resear­cher</p><p>VNIIPO, 12, Balashikha, Moscow Region, 143903</p><p>ID RISC: 47042; Scopus AuthorID: 7006511704</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">yn_shebeko@mail.ru</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Всероссийский ордена «Знак Почета» научно-исследовательский институт противопожарной обороны Министерства Российской Федерации по делам гражданской обороны, чрезвычайным ситуациям и ликвидации последствий стихийных бедствий</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>All-Russian Research Institute for Fire Protection of Ministry of Russian Federation for Civil Defense, Emergencies and Elimination of Consequences of Natural Disasters</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2023</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>24</day><month>08</month><year>2023</year></pub-date><volume>32</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>31</fpage><lpage>41</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Шебеко Ю.Н., 2023</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2023</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Шебеко Ю.Н.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Shebeko Y.N.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://www.fire-smi.ru/jour/article/view/1248">https://www.fire-smi.ru/jour/article/view/1248</self-uri><abstract><sec><title>Введение</title><p>Введение. Проведено обоснование важности исследований поведения резервуаров с СПГ в очаге пожара. Отмечен наиболее опасный режим разрушения таких резервуаров — BLEVE (boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion — взрыв расширяющихся паров вскипающей жидкости). Актуальность статьи обусловлена необходимостью анали­­за явления BLEVE с целью его предотвращения и снижения последствий. Целью работы является изложение основ феноменологии этого явления и анализ современных исследований в указанном направлении, включая анализ имевших место инцидентов. При этом основное внимание уделяется сжиженному природному газу.</p><p>Общие закономерности возникновения и протекания BLEVE. На основе анализа p–V и p–T диаграмм (p — давление; V — объем; T — температура) рассмотрена феноменология явления BLEVE. Отмечено наличие предельной температуры перегрева жидкой фазы, выше которой ее кипение происходит в режиме гомогенной нуклеации с дальнейшим возникновением BLEVE.</p><p>Краткий анализ аварий с возникновением BLEVE на резервуарах СПГ. Рассмотрены имевшие место наиболее крупные аварии с взрывом резервуаров СПГ в очаге пожара. В их числе проанализированы инциденты в г. Тивисса (Испания, 2002 г.), г. Зарзалико (Испания, 2011 г.) и провинции Шанси (Китайская народная республика, 2019 г.) на автоцистернах для перевозки СПГ. Отмечено, что размеры зон поражения опасными факторами таких аварий (тепловое излучение огненных шаров, давление в ударной волне, разлетающиеся фрагменты резервуаров) могут достигать величин 100–200 м.</p><p>Экспериментальные и теоретические исследования явления BLEVE и образующихся при этом огненных шаров. Проанализированы исследования, в которых изучены параметры огненного шара (диаметр, длительность существования, высота подъема, интенсивность теплового излучения) на резервуарах СПГ объ­емом до 5 м3. Отмечено также крупномасштабное исследование параметров огненного шара, образующегося в результате истечения СПГ из трубопровода и сгорания образующегося переобогащенного облака.</p></sec><sec><title>Выводы</title><p>Выводы. Основные закономерности аварий на резервуарах СПГ, протекающих в режиме BLEVE с образованием огненных шаров, во многом аналогичны имеющим место в случае резервуаров со сжиженными углеводородными газами (СУГ), но при этом поверхностная плотность теплового потока огненного шара СПГ (около 500 кВт/м2) существенно выше, чем для СУГ.</p></sec></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><sec><title>Introduction</title><p>Introduction. The paper substantiates the importance of investigations of LNG tanks behaviour during fires. The most dangerous mode of their destruction (BLEVE, boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion), is mentioned. The relevance of the article is conditioned by the need to analyze the BLEVE phenomenon to prevent it and to miti­gate its consequences. The purpose of the paper is to present fundamentals of this phenomenon and to analyze advanced relevant research findings, including the analysis of recent accidents. The main focus is on liquefied natural gas.</p><p>General regularities of BLEVE. The BLEVE phenomenon was analyzed using p–V and p–T diagrams (p is pressure, V is volume, and T is temperature). Liquid boils at critical overheat temperature in the mode of homogeneous nucleation followed by BLEVE. Experimental data on critical overheat temperatures are presented for some liquefied gases and flammable liquids.</p><p>Brief analysis of BLEVE accidents involving LNG tanks. Major BLEVE accidents, involving LNG tanks, are considered. These events occurred in Tivissa (Spain, 2002), Zarzalico (Spain, 2011), and Shansi (China, 2019), and each involved road tanks for LNG transportation. Dimensions of hazardous thermal radiation zones, that emerged as a consequence of fireballs, blast waves and vessel fragments, reached 100–200 m.</p><p>Experimental and theoretical investigations of BLEVE and fireballs that emerged at LNG tanks. The most interesting experimental studies in this area are analyzed. Hazardous factors (the fireball diameter, time frame, height of elevation, and thermal radiation intensity) were determined using a 5 m3 tank. The empirical correlation, connecting the above mentioned parameters with the LNG mass in the tank, were obtained. Large-scale experiments were carried out to determine characteristics of fireballs that emerged when LNG was flowing out of the pipeline and when the resulting oversaturated cloud was on fire. </p></sec><sec><title>Conclusions</title><p>Conclusions. The main patterns of BLEVE and fireball accidents, involving LNG tanks, were analyzed. Their patterns are similar to those typical for LPG tanks. However, the surface radiation from LNG tank fireballs (nearly 500 kW/m2) is much higher than the surface radiation from LPG tanks (nearly 350 kW/m2).</p></sec></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>перегретая жидкость</kwd><kwd>предельная температура перегрева</kwd><kwd>взрыв расширяющихся паров вскипающей жидкости</kwd><kwd>огненный шар</kwd><kwd>зоны поражения опасными факторами</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>overheated liquid</kwd><kwd>critical overheating temperature</kwd><kwd>boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion</kwd><kwd>fireball</kwd><kwd>hazardous zones</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Маршал В. Основные опасности химических производств. М. : Мир, 1989. 671 с.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Marshall V.C. Major chemical hazards. New York, Ellis Horwood Limited, 1987; 671.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Бейкер У., Кокс П., Уэстайн П. Взрывные явления: оценка и последствия. М. : Мир, 1986. Т. 1, 2.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Baker W.E., Cox P.A., Westline P.S., Kulesz J.J., Strelow R.A. Explosion hazards and evaluation. Amsterdam, Elsevior Scientific Publishing Company, 1983; 1, 2.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Шевчук А.П., Симонов О.А., Шебеко Ю.Н., Фахрисламов Р.З. Закономерности протекания аварий на резер­вуарах со сжиженными углеводородными газами с образованием огненных шаров // Химическая промышленность. 1991. № 6. С. 338–340.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shevchuck A.P., Simonov O.A., Shebeko Yu.N., Fakhrislamov R.Z. The regularities of accidents on LPG tanks with a fireballs occurrence. Chemical Industry. 1991; 6:338-340. (rus).</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Planas-Cuchi E., Gassula N., Ventosa A., Casal J. Explosion of a road tanker containing liquefied natural gas // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2004. Vol. 17. Pp. 315–321. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2004.05.005</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Planas-Cuchi E., Gassula N., Ventosa A., Casal J. Explosion of a road tanker containing liquefied natural gas. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2004; 17:315-321. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2004.05.005</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Planas E., Pastor E., Casal J., Bonilla J.M. Analysis of the boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) of a liquefied natural gas road tanker: The Zarzalico accident // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2015. Vol. 34. Pp. 127–138. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2015.01.026</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Planas E., Pastor E., Casal J., Bonilla J.M. Analysis of the boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE) of a liquefied natural gas road tanker: The Zarzalico accident. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2015; 34:127-138. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2015.01.026</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wang K., Quin X., He Y., Shi T., Zhang X. Failure analysis integrated with prediction model for LNG transport trailer and thermal hazards induced by an accidental VCE: A case study // Engineering Failure Analysis. 2020. Vol. 108. P. 104350. DOI: 10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.104350</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wang K., Quin X., He Y., Shi T., Zhang X. Failure analysis integrated with prediction model for LNG transport trailer and thermal hazards induced by an accidental VCE: A case study. Engineering Failure Analysis. 2020; 108:104350.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">McDevitt C.A., Chan C.K., Steward F.R., Tennankore K.N. Initiation step of boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions // Journal of Hazardous Materials. 1990. Vol. 25. Issue 1–3. Pp. 169–180.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">McDevitt C.A., Chan C.K., Steward F.R., Tennankore K.N. Initiation step of boiling liquid expanding vapor explosions. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 1990; 25(1-3):169-180.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Abbasi T., Abbasi S.A. The boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE): Mechanism, consequences assessment, management // Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2007. Vol. 141. Issue 3. Pp. 489–519. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.09.056</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Abbasi T., Abbasi S.A. The boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE): Mechanism, consequences assessment, management. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2007; 141(3):489-519. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.09.056</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Шебеко Ю.Н. Критерий возможности возникновения взрыва резервуара с перегретой жидкостью // Хими­ческая промышленность. 1994. № 5. С. 302–305.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shebeko Yu.N. The criteria of possibility of BLEVE occurrence. Chemical Industry. 1994; 5:302-305. (rus).</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Frost D.L. Dynamics of explosive boiling of a droplet // Physics of Fluids. 1988. Vol. 31. Issue 9. Pp. 2554–2561. DOI: 10.1063/1.866608</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Frost D.L. Dynamics of explosive boiling of a droplet. Physics of Fluids. 1988; 31(9):2554-2561. DOI: 10.1063/1.866608</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Frost D., Sturtevant B. Effects of ambient pressure on the instability of a liquid boiling explosively at the superheat limit // Journal of Heat Transfer. 1986. Vol. 108. Issue 2. Pp. 418–424.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Frost D., Sturtevant B. Effects of ambient pressure on the instability of a liquid boiling explosively at the superheat limit. Journal of Heat Transfer. 1986; 108(2):418-424.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Shepherd J.E., Sturtevant B. Rapid evaporation at the superheat limit // Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 1982. Vol. 121. Pp. 379–402.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shepherd J.E., Sturtevant B. Rapid evaporation at the superheat limit. Journal of Fluid Mechanics. 1982; 121:379-402.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Shebeko Yu.N., Shebeko A.Yu. On the mechanism of a BLEVE occurrence due to fire engulfment of tanks with overheated liquids // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2015. Vol. 36. Pp. 167–170. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2015.06.006</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Shebeko Yu.N., Shebeko A.Yu. On the mechanism of a BLEVE occurrence due to fire engulfment of tanks with overheated liquids. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2015; 36:167-170. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2015.06.006</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Jingde Li, Hong Hao. Numerical simulation of medium to large scale bleve and the prediction of BLEVE’s blast wave in obstructed environment // Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2021. Vol. 145. Pp. 94–109.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jingde Li, Hong Hao. Numerical simulation of medium to large scale bleve and the prediction of BLEVE’s blast wave in obstructed environment. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2021; 145:94-109.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Li Q., Wang Y., Li L., Hao H., Wang R., Li J. Prediction of BLEVE loads on structures using machine learning and CFD // Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2023. Vol. 171. Pp. 914–925.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Li Q., Wang Y., Li L., Hao H., Wang R., Li J. Prediction of BLEVE loads on structures using machine learning and CFD. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2023; 171:914-925.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Birk A.M., Eyssette R., Heymes F. Early moments of Bleve: From vessel opening to liquid flashing release // Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2019. Vol. 132. Pp. 35–46. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2019.09.028</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Birk A.M., Eyssette R., Heymes F. Early moments of Bleve: From vessel opening to liquid flashing release. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2019; 132:35-46. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2019.09.028</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hemmatian B., Casal J., Planas E. A new procedure to estimate BLEVE overpressure // Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2017. Vol. 111. Pp. 320–325. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2017.07.016</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hemmatian B., Casal J., Planas E. A new procedure to estimate BLEVE overpressure. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2017; 111:320-325. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2017.07.016</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hemmatian B., Planas E., Casal J. Comparative analysis of BLEVE mechanical energy and overpressure modelling // Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2017. Vol. 106. Issue 3. Pp. 138–149. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2017.01.007</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hemmatian B., Planas E., Casal J. Comparative analysis of BLEVE mechanical energy and overpressure modelling. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2017; 106(3):138-149. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2017.01.007</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ustolin F., Tolias I.C., Giannissi S.G., Venetsanos A.G., Paltrinieri N. A CFD analysis of liquefied gas vessel explosions // Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2022. Vol. 159. Pp. 61–75. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2021.12.048</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustolin F., Tolias I.C., Giannissi S.G., Venetsanos A.G., Paltrinieri N. A CFD analysis of liquefied gas vessel explosions. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2022; 159:61-75. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2021.12.048</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bariha N., Mishra I.M., Srivastava V.C. Fire and explosion hazard analysis during surface transport of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG): A case study of LPG truck tanker accident in Kannur, Kerala, India // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2016. Vol. 40. Pp. 449–460. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2016.01.020</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bariha N., Mishra I.M., Srivastava V.C. Fire and explosion hazard analysis during surface transport of liquefied petro­leum gas (LPG): A case study of LPG truck tanker accident in Kannur, Kerala, India. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2016; 40:449-460. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2016.01.020</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kohout A., Jain P., Dick W. Review, identification and analysis of local impact of projectile hazard in the LNG industry: A LNG storage tanks case study // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2019. Vol. 57. Pp. 304–319. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2018.07.018</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kohout A., Jain P., Dick W. Review, identification and analysis of local impact of projectile hazard in the LNG industry: A LNG storage tanks case study. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2019; 57:304-319. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2018.07.018</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hemmatian B., Casal J., Planas E., Rashtchian D. BLEVE: The case of water and a historical survey // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2019. Vol. 57. Pp. 231–238. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2018.12.001</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hemmatian B., Casal J., Planas E., Rashtchian D. BLEVE: The case of water and a historical survey. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2019; 57:231-238. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2018.12.001</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wang Y., Gu X., Xia L., Pan Y., Ni Y., Wang S., Zhou W. Hazard analysis on LPG fireball of road tanker BLEVE based on CFD simulation // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2020. Vol. 68. Issue 3. P. 104919. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2020.104319</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wang Y., Gu X., Xia L., Pan Y., Ni Y., Wang S., Zhou W. Hazard analysis on LPG fireball of road tanker BLEVE based on CFD simulation. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2020; 68(3):104919. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2020.104319</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Birk A.M., Eyssette R., Heymes F. Analysis of BLEVE overpressure using spherical shock theory // Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2020. Vol. 134. Pp. 108–120. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2019.11.023</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Birk A.M., Eyssette R., Heymes F. Analysis of BLEVE overpressure using spherical shock theory. Process Safety and Environmental Protection. 2020; 134:108-120. DOI: 10.1016/j.psep.2019.11.023</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zhang Q.-X., Liang D. Thermal radiation and impact assessment of the LNG BLEVE fireball // Procedia Engineering. 2013. Vol. 52. Pp. 602–606. DOI: 10.1016/j.proeng.2013.02.192</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zhang Q.-X., Liang D. Thermal radiation hazards from releases of LPG from pressurised storage. Procedia Engineering. 2013; 52:602-606. DOI: 10.1016/j.proeng.2013.02.192</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Methods for the calculation of physical effects (“Yellow Book”). CPR 14E (parts 1 and 2). The Hague, Committee for the Prevention of Disasters. 3rd Ed. 1997.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Methods for the calculation of physical effects (“Yellow Book”). CPR 14E (parts 1 and 2). The Hague, Committee for the Prevention of Disasters. 3rd Ed. 1997.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Betteridge S., Phillips L. Large scale pressurized LNG BLEVE experiments // Symposium series No. 160. Hazards 25. Shell, 2015.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Betteridge S., Phillips L. Large scale pressurized LNG BLEVE experiments. Symposium series no.160. Hazards 25. Shell, 2015.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit28"><label>28</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Roberts A.F. Thermal radiation hazards from releases of LPG from pressurised storage // Fire Safety Journal. 1982. Vol. 4. Pp. 197–212. DOI: 10.1016/0379-7112(81)90018-7</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Roberts A.F. Thermal radiation hazards from released LPG from pressurized storage. Fire Safety Journal. 1982; 4:197-212. DOI: 10.1016/0379-7112(81)90018-7</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit29"><label>29</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hasegava K., Saito K. Study on the fireball following steam of n-pentane // Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries. Heidelberg, 1977. Pp. 297–304.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hasegava K., Saito K. Study on the fireball following steam of n-pentane. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries. Heidelberg, 1977; 297-304.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit30"><label>30</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Roberts A.F. The effect of conditions prior to loss of containment of fireball behavior // International Chemical Engineering Symposium. Series No. 71. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1982.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Roberts A.F. The effect of conditions prior to loss of containment of fireball behavior. International Chemical Engineering Symposium. Series. No. 71. Oxford, Pergamon Press, 1982.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit31"><label>31</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Birk A.M., Andersson R.J., Coppens A.J. A computer simulation of a derailment accident: Part I: Model basis // Journal of Hazardous Materials. 1990. Vol. 25. Issue 1–2. Pp. 121–147.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Birk A.M., Andersson R.J., Coppens A.J. A computer simulation of a derailment accident: Part I — Model basis. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 1990; 25(1-2):121-147.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit32"><label>32</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wang K., Lui Z., Qian X., Huang P. Long-term consequence and vulnerability assessment of thermal radiation hazard from LNG explosive fireball in open space based on full-scale experiment and PHAST // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2017. Vol. 46. Pp. 13–22. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2017.01.001</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wang K., Lui Z., Qian X., Huang P. Long-term consequence and vulnerability assessment of thermal radiation hazard from LNG explosive fireball in open space based on full-scale experiment and PHAST. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2017; 46:13-22. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2017.01.001</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit33"><label>33</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wang K., He Y., Lui Z., Qian X. Experimental study on optimization models for evaluation of fireball characteristics and thermal hazards induced by LNG vapor cloud explosions based on colorimetric thermometry // Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2019. Vol. 366. Pp. 282–292. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.10.087</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wang K., He Y., Lui Z., Qian X. Experimental study on optimization models for evaluation of fireball characteristics and thermal hazards induced by LNG vapor cloud explosions based on colorimetric thermometry. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2019; 366:282-292. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.10.087</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit34"><label>34</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Raj P.K. LNG fires: A review of experimental results, models and hazard prediction challenges // Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2007. Vol. 140. Issue 3. Pp. 444–464. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.10.029</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Raj P.K. LNG fires: A review of experimental results, models and hazard prediction challenges. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2007; 140(3):444-464. DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2006.10.029</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit35"><label>35</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Zalosh R. Blast waves and fireballs generated by hydrogen fuel tank rupture during fire exposure // Proceedings of the 5th International Seminar on Fire and Explosion Hazards. Edinburgh, 2008. Pp. 149–158.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Zalosh R. Blast waves and fireballs generated by hydrogen fuel tank rupture during fire exposure. Proceedings of the 5th International Seminar on Fire and Explosion Hazards. Edinburgh, 2008; 149-158.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit36"><label>36</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Cirrone D., Makarov D., Molkov V. Rethinking “BLEVE explosion” after liquid hydrogen storage tank rupture in a fire // International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2023. Vol. 48. Issue 23. Pp. 8716–8730. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.09.114</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Cirrone D., Makarov D., Molkov V. Rethinking “BLEVE explosion” after liquid hydrogen storage tank rupture in a fire. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2023; 48(23):8716-8730. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2022.09.114</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit37"><label>37</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hansen O.R. Liquid hydrogen releases show dense gas behavior // International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2020. Vol. 45. Pp. 1343–1358. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.09.060</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hansen O.R. Liquid hydrogen releases show dense gas behavior. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 2020; 45:1343-1358. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijhydene.2019.09.060</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit38"><label>38</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ustolin F., Paltrinieri N., Landucci G. An innovative and comprehensive approach for the consequence analysis of liquid hydrogen vessel explosions // Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2020. Vol. 68. P. 104323. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2020.104323</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ustolin F., Paltrinieri N., Landucci G. An innovative and comprehensive approach for the consequence analysis of liquid hydrogen vessel explosions. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries. 2020; 68:104323. DOI: 10.1016/j.jlp.2020.104323</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit39"><label>39</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Pehr K. Aspects of safety and acceptance of LH2 tank systems in passenger cars // International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 1996. Vol. 21. Issue 5. Pp. 387–395. DOI: 10.1016/0360-3199(95)00092-5</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Pehr K. Aspects of safety and acceptance of LH2 tank systems in passenger cars. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy. 1996; 21(5):387-395. DOI: 10.1016/0360-3199(95)00092-5</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit40"><label>40</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wingerden K., Kluge M., Habib A.K., Ustolin F., Paltriniery N. Medium-scale tests to investigate the possibility and effects of BLEVEs of storage vessels containing liquefied hydrogen // Chemical Engineering Transactions. 2022. Vol. 90. Pp. 547–552. DOI: 10.3303/CET2290092</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wingerden K., Kluge M., Habib A.K., Ustolin F., Paltriniery N. Medium-scale tests to investigate the possibility and effects of BLEVEs of storage vessels containing liquefied hydrogen. Chemical Engineering Transactions. 2022; 90:547-552. DOI: 10.3303/CET2290092</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
